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A common situation where reference parameters are needed is where the function has to return more than one value. It can only return one value directly with a return statement. So if more than one value must be returned, reference parameters can do the job.

EXAMPLE 4.17 Computing the Area and Circumference of a Circle This function returns through its two reference parameters the area and the circumference of a circle whose radius has the given length r: void { computeCircle(double& area, double& circumference, double r)

const double pi = 3.141592653589793; area = pi*r*r; circumference = 2*pi*r; > Here is a test driver and output from a sample run: void computeCircle(double&, double&, double);

Fig. 2-1.

main0 { double r, a, c; tout << "Enter radius: "; tin >> r; computeCircle(a, c, r); tout << "area = ' << a << ',

circumference = ' -KC c <c endl;

Note that the output parameters area and circumference are listed first in the parameter list, to the left of the input parameter r. This standard C style is consistent with the format of assignment statements: q = p, where the information (the value) flows from the read-only variable p on the right & the read-write variable q on the left.

There are two good reasons for passing a parameter by reference. If the function has to change the value of the actual parameter, as the swap ( > function did, then it must be passed by reference. Also, if the actual parameter that is passed to a function takes up a lot of storage space (for example, a one-megabyte graphics image), then it is more efficient to pass it by reference to prevent it from being duplicated. However, this also allows the function to change the value (Le., contents) of the actual parameter. If you don t want the function to change its contents (for example, if the purpose of the function is to print the object), then passing by reference can be risky. Fortunately, C++ provides a third alternative: passing by constant reference. It works the same way as passing by reference, except that the function is prevented from changing the value of the parameter. The effect is that the function has access to the actual parameter by means of its formal parameter alias, but the value of that formal parameter may not be changed during the execution of the function. A parameter that is passed by value is called read-only because it cannot write (Le., change) the contents of that parameter.

Draw the process model showing decisions. Adding decisions allows the process model to be more explicit about what happens in all circumstances, as shown in Fig. 2-2.

This illustrates the three ways to pass a parameter to a function:

void f(int x, int& y, const int& z) x += z; y += z; tout << "X = u << x << II, y,= u C-C y -CC II, z = ' << z << endl;

The first parameter a is passed by value, the second parameter b is passed by reference, and the third parameter c is passed by constant reference:

Thus, typical security concerns, such as AAA (pronounced tripleA, standing for administration, authorization, and authentication), which deal with how identity is established and managed, what kinds of access or capability proofs of identity confer, and how identity may be proven, are making themselves important in ongoing XML development and activity To that end, numerous XML markup languages incorporate or support various systems of digital signatures, extensions and management of con rmation and trust, and various proofs of identity and nonrepudiation of transactions (to.

Identify the unique operators and operands in the following code that does multiplication by repeated addition. Z = 0; while X > 0 Z=Z+Y; X = X-1 ; end-while ; print(Z) ; operators = ; while-endwhile > +-print () operands Z0XY1 thus, 1 = 8 and 2 = 5

main0 int a = 22, b = 33, c = 44; tout << "a = u << a << II, b = H << b CC ', c = ' -CC c CC endl; f(a,b,d; tout << "a = H <C a << II, b = 'I << b << ", c = ' CC c CC endl; )